电话的历史及其发展过程

音乐

建议查阅一下《格洛夫音乐与音乐辞典》条目 以下转贴其中部分段落。 I. The role of the conservatory The idea of a school where music is one of the principal if not the only subject of study dates back to medieval church choir schools. By 1600 these schools usually taught reading and writing, and sometimes rhetoric and literature as well. The concept of the conservatory, however, differs from this model in several respects. First, although in some early conservatories students were expected to take part in church ceremonial, that was never their sole occupation. Secondly, conservatories trAIned them for the music profession in general, rather than simply for church music. Thirdly, conservatories have usually been answerable to lay people, whether in the narrow sense of having lay governors or more broadly by being partly controlled by state or municipal authorities. Before the advent of conservatories, musicians were educated by family members and through apprenticeships or guilds, as well as in church schools. A large percentage of musicians were trAIned by their parents and were bound to provide for their mAIntenance in old age unless given legal ‘emancipation’ from such support. Apprenticeship – for which contracts were written right up to the first deCADes of the 20th century – began as early as the age of eight, whether or not the child was being tutored by a parent. Lasting anywhere from three to 12 years, this agreement between the teacher and the child’s family involved either payment during that period or a percentage of the apprentice’s income in his early career. The teacher served as mentor, indeed as an agent for the young musician. Similar practices occurred for girls and young women, though contractual apprenticeship was less common than with males. The establishment of opera companies in courts and cities in the 17th century, and the burgeoning of public concerts in the 18th century, increased the demand for musicians beyond what family trAIning and apprenticeship could meet. The early Italian conservatories were orphanages from which opera companies could draw promising singers. For families of limited resources, trAIning a young man as a castrato was often a good financial strategy. These schools produced the host of musicians who spread all over Europe and made Italian opera the dominant idiom internationally. Another impetus towards the founding of conservatories was the rise of new ideas about how musicians should best be trAIned. Competition among musical centres stimulated leaders in the musical community to build schools to improve musicianship in their regions. Conservatories also served as a source of musicians for performances in homes and private salons, a growing area of musical activity. The widespread closing of monasteries and church music schools beginning in the late 1700s gave rise to a golden age of conservatory founding. As sacred and secular institutions diverged, the state and private patrons and societies took over many of the church’s functions in musical education. In Paris, London, Leipzig and other cities musicians were trAIned to take part in the musical life of bourgeois society. Yet religious music retAIned a place in the conservatory curriculum, and the movement for church music reform gave fresh impetus to the creation of specialist schools for church musicians. Conservatories responded to the growing professionalisation of musical life during the later part of the 19th century by drawing a sharper distinction between the trAIning of professional and amateur musicians. Increasingly their resources were directed towards meeting the demand for highly skilled orchestral musicians, instrumental soloists and opera singers. Yet there was also a need for teachers to serve the expanding middle class, especially in piano and voice trAIning. Many conservatories made special provisions for teaching ‘dilettantes’ or mAIntAIned preparatory divisions alongside their central course of study. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, conservatories arose and developed in the context of general educational reforms that resulted in an increasingly diverse student body, the elimination or reduction of fees and greatly expanded curricular offerings. The large number of women who studied in early conservatories – usually as many as men, if not more – reflected the expansion of formal education generally. While the great majority of teachers were men, a few women achieved prominence, such as Clara Schumann in Frankfurt and the violinist Nobu Koda in the Tokyo Conservatory at its start in the 1880s. Both staff and student bodies became steadily more international in their make-up, especially after World War II. The notion of conservatories as ‘conservators’ of national or regional styles of performance and composition has gradually been eroded in the face of the internationalization of musical life and the trend towards standardization of musical pedagogy. If the 18th century may be sAId to have been dominated by the Italian conservatory and the 19th century by the French and German models, the 20th century was characterized by a more eclectic approach. This reflects the spread of the conservatory movement to Russia and eastern Europe, SpAIn, Portugal, the Low Countries, Scandinavia, the USA, BritAIn’s overseas dominions, Latin America and Asia. This article focusses on the central lines of that development; the histories of individual conservatories are covered in greater detAIl in the respective city and country articles. 历史部分在后面太多了。